What Is The Name Of The Highest Point On Most Four Legged Animals?

Standard terms for unambiguous clarification of relative placement of body parts

Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, draw something in its standard anatomical position. This position provides a definition of what is at the front ("anterior"), behind ("posterior") and then on. As part of defining and describing terms, the body is described through the use of anatomical planes and anatomical axes.

The pregnant of terms that are used tin change depending on whether an organism is bipedal or quadrupedal. Additionally, for some animals such equally invertebrates, some terms may non take any significant at all; for example, an animal that is radially symmetrical volition have no anterior surface, merely can still accept a description that a function is close to the middle ("proximal") or further from the center ("distal").

International organisations have determined vocabularies that are often used equally standard vocabularies for subdisciplines of anatomy, for instance, Terminologia Anatomica for humans, and Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria for animals. These allow parties that utilise anatomical terms, such as anatomists, veterinarians, and medical doctors to take a standard prepare of terms to communicate clearly the position of a structure.

Introduction [edit]

Considering of differences in the way humans and other animals are structured, different terms are used according to the neuraxis and whether an fauna is a vertebrate or invertebrate.

Standard anatomical and zoological terms of location have been developed, commonly based on Latin and Greek words, to enable all biological and medical scientists, veterinarians, doctors and anatomists to precisely delineate and communicate information virtually beast bodies and their organs, even though the meaning of some of the terms frequently is context-sensitive.^{[i] [2]} Much of this information has been standardised in internationally agreed vocabularies for humans (Terminologia Anatomica)^[2] and animals (Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria).^[1]

For humans, one type of vertebrate, and other animals that stand on two feet (bipeds), terms that are used are different from those that stand on four (quadrupeds).^[1] One reason is that humans accept a dissimilar neuraxis and some other is that unlike animals that rest on 4 limbs, humans are considered when describing anatomy equally being in the standard anatomical position, which is standing up with arms outstretched.^[2] Thus, what is on "pinnacle" of a human is the head, whereas the "meridian" of a domestic dog may exist its back, and the "tiptop" of a flounder could refer to either its left or its right side. Unique terms are used to draw animals without a backbone (invertebrates), because of their broad variety of shapes and symmetry.^[iii]

Standard anatomical position [edit]

Because animals can alter orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles can change position with respect to the main body, terms to describe position demand to refer to an animate being when it is in its standard anatomical position.^[1] This means descriptions every bit if the organism is in its standard anatomical position, fifty-fifty when the organism in question has appendages in another position. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the aforementioned organism in different postures.^[i] In humans, this refers to the body in a standing position with arms at the side and palms facing forward, with thumbs out and to the sides.^{[2] [1]}

Combined terms [edit]

Many anatomical terms can be combined, either to indicate a position in ii axes simultaneously or to betoken the management of a motility relative to the trunk. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle).

In radiology, an X-ray image may be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the beam of Ten-rays passes from their source to patient's inductive body wall through the trunk to get out through posterior torso wall.^[4] Combined terms were one time generally, hyphenated, simply the modern tendency is to omit the hyphen.^[5]

Planes [edit]

Anatomical planes in a human

Anatomical terms draw structures with relation to four main anatomical planes:^[two]

1. The median airplane, which divides the body into left and right.^{[ii] [6]} This passes through the caput, spinal cord, belly button, and, in many animals, the tail.^[vi]
2. The sagittal planes, which are parallel to the median airplane.^[ane]
3. The frontal airplane, also chosen the coronal airplane, which divides the body into front and back.^[2]
4. The horizontal plane, besides known equally the transverse plane, which is perpendicular to the other two planes.^[2] In a human, this aeroplane is parallel to the ground; in a quadruped, this divides the animal into anterior and posterior sections.^[iii]

Axes [edit]

Organisms where the ends of the long centrality are singled-out. (Paramecium caudatum, above, and Stentor roeselii, below.)

The axes of the body are lines drawn about which an organism is roughly symmetrical.^[7] To do this, distinct ends of an organism are chosen, and the centrality is named co-ordinate to those directions. An organism that is symmetrical on both sides has three principal axes that intersect at right angles.^[three] An organism that is round or not symmetrical may have dissimilar axes.^[3] Case axes are:

• The anteroposterior centrality^[viii]
• The cephalocaudal axis^[9]
• The dorsoventral axis^[ten]

Examples of axes in specific animals are shown beneath.

• 

  Anatomical axes and directions in a fish

• 

  Spheroid or near-spheroid organs such as testes may be measured past "long" and "brusk" centrality.^[eleven]

Modifiers [edit]

Terms tin can be modified with prefixes and suffixes. In this image showing the jellyfish species Chrysaora, the prefix 'ab-', is used to signal something that is 'away from' the mouth, for example the aboral. Other terms are combined to indicate axes, such as proximodistal axis.

Several terms are commonly seen and used equally prefixes:

• Sub- (from Latin sub 'preposition beneath, close to, nearly etc') is used to point something that is below, or something that is subordinate to or bottom than.^[12] For case, subcutaneous ways beneath the skin, and "subglobular" may mean smaller than a globule
• Hypo- (from Aboriginal Greek ὑπό 'under') is used to point something that is beneath.^[13] For example, the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles beneath the tongue.
• Infra- (from Latin infra 'nether') is used to betoken something that is inside or below.^[14] For example, the infraorbital nervus runs within the orbit.
• Inter- (from Latin inter 'between') is used to indicate something that is between.^[15] For example, the intercostal muscles run betwixt the ribs.
• Super- or Supra- (from Latin super, supra 'to a higher place, on summit of') is used to indicate something that is to a higher place something else.^[16] For example, the supraorbital ridges are above the eyes.

Other terms are used every bit suffixes, added to the cease of words:

• -advert (from Latin advertising 'towards') and ab- (from Latin ab) are used to indicate that something is towards (-ad) or away from (-ab) something else.^{[17] [18]} For instance, "distad" means "in the distal management", and "distad of the femur" means "beyond the femur in the distal direction". Further examples may include cephalad (towards the cephalic cease), craniad, and proximad.^[nineteen]

Master terms [edit]

Superior and inferior [edit]

Superior (from Latin super 'above') describes what is in a higher place something^[xx] and inferior (from Latin inferus 'below') describes what is beneath information technology.^[21] For instance, in the anatomical position, the nearly superior part of the man trunk is the head and the most junior is the feet. As a 2d instance, in humans, the neck is superior to the chest but inferior to the head.

Inductive and posterior [edit]

Anterior (from Latin dues 'before') describes what is in front,^[22] and posterior (from Latin mail service 'after') describes what is to the dorsum of something.^[23] For example, for a dog the nose is anterior to the eyes and the tail is considered the most posterior part; for many fish the gill openings are posterior to the eyes just anterior to the tail.

Medial and lateral [edit]

These terms describe how close something is to the midline, or the medial plane.^[2] Lateral (from Latin lateralis 'to the side') describes something to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and "right lateral". Medial (from Latin medius 'middle') describes structures close to the midline,^[2] or closer to the midline than another construction. For example, in a human, the arms are lateral to the body. The genitals are medial to the legs.

The terms "left" and "right" are sometimes used, or their Latin alternatives (Latin: dexter, lit.'right'; Latin: sinister, lit.'left'). All the same, as left and right sides are mirror images, using these words is somewhat disruptive, as structures are duplicated on both sides. For instance, information technology is very confusing to say the dorsal fin of a fish is "right of" the left pectoral fin, merely is "left of" the right middle,^{[ dubious – hash out ]} but much easier and clearer to say "the dorsal fin is medial to the pectoral fins".

Terms derived from lateral include:

• Contralateral (from Latin contra 'against'): on the side contrary to another structure.^[24] For example, the right arm and leg are controlled by the left, contralateral, side of the encephalon.
• Ipsilateral (from Latin ipse 'same'): on the aforementioned side equally another structure.^[25] For example, the left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg.
• Bilateral (from Latin bis 'twice'): on both sides of the body.^[26] For example, bilateral orchiectomy means removal of testes on both sides of the body.
• Unilateral (from Latin unus 'i'): on one side of the body.^[27] For example, a stroke can result in unilateral weakness, meaning weakness on one side of the body.

Varus (from Latin 'knock-kneed') and valgus (from Latin 'bow-legged') are terms used to describe a state in which a office further away is abnormally placed towards (varus) or away from (valgus) the midline.^[28]

Proximal and distal [edit]

Anatomical directional reference

The terms proximal (from Latin proximus 'nearest') and distal (from Latin distare 'to stand away from') are used to describe parts of a feature that are shut to or distant from the main mass of the trunk, respectively.^[29] Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal and the mitt is distal.

"Proximal and distal" are frequently used when describing appendages, such as fins, tentacles, and limbs. Although the direction indicated by "proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or abroad from the betoken of attachment, a given structure can be either proximal or distal in relation to another point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to a wound on the upper arm, just proximal to a wound on the lower arm.^[thirty]

This terminology is also employed in molecular biology and therefore by extension is also used in chemistry, specifically referring to the atomic loci of molecules from the overall moiety of a given compound.^[31]

Central and peripheral [edit]

Central and peripheral refer to the distance towards and abroad from the centre of something.^[32] That might exist an organ, a region in the torso, or an anatomical construction. For example, the Primal nervous organization and the peripheral nervous systems.

Key (from Latin centralis) describes something shut to the centre.^[32] For example, the great vessels run centrally through the body; many smaller vessels branch from these.

Peripheral (from Latin peripheria, originally from Ancient Greek) describes something further away from the centre of something.^[33] For instance, the arm is peripheral to the body.

Superficial and deep [edit]

These terms refer to the distance of a structure from the surface.^[2]

Deep (from Old English) describes something further away from the surface of the organism.^[34] For example, the external oblique muscle of the abdomen is deep to the skin. "Deep" is i of the few anatomical terms of location derived from Old English rather than Latin – the anglicised Latin term would have been "profound" (from Latin profundus 'due to depth').^{[1] [35]}

Superficial (from Latin superficies 'surface') describes something nigh the outer surface of the organism.^{[i] [36]} For example, in skin, the epidermis is superficial to the subcutis.

Dorsal and ventral [edit]

These 2 terms, used in beefcake and embryology, draw something at the dorsum (dorsal) or forepart/belly (ventral) of an organism.^[2]

The dorsal (from Latin back 'back') surface of an organism refers to the back, or upper side, of an organism. If talking about the skull, the dorsal side is the peak.^[37]

The ventral (from Latin venter 'belly') surface refers to the front, or lower side, of an organism.^[37]

For case, in a fish, the pectoral fins are dorsal to the anal fin, but ventral to the dorsal fin.

Cranial and caudal [edit]

In the human skull, the terms rostral and caudal are adapted to the curved neuraxis of Hominidae, rostrocaudal meaning the region on C shape connecting rostral and caudal regions.

Specific terms be to describe how close or far something is to the head or tail of an animal. To describe how close to the head of an brute something is, iii distinct terms are used:

• Rostral (from Latin rostrum 'beak, olfactory organ') describes something situated toward the oral or nasal region, or in the case of the brain, toward the tip of the frontal lobe.^[38]
• Cranial (from Greek κρανίον 'skull') or cephalic (from Greek κεφαλή 'caput') describes how shut something is to the head of an organism.^[39]
• Caudal (from Latin cauda 'tail') describes how shut something is to the abaft end of an organism.^[40]

For example, in horses, the eyes are caudal to the olfactory organ and rostral to the back of the caput.

These terms are generally preferred in veterinary medicine and not used every bit often in human medicine.^{[41] [42] [43]} In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer to the skull, with "cranial" beingness used more than unremarkably. The term "rostral" is rarely used in homo anatomy, autonomously from embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior attribute of the organism. Similarly, the term "caudal" is used more in embryology and only occasionally used in human anatomy.^[2] This is because the brain is situated at the superior office of the head whereas the nose is situated in the anterior part. Thus, the "rostrocaudal axis" refers to a C shape (see image).

Other terms and special cases [edit]

Anatomical landmarks [edit]

The location of anatomical structures can also be described in relation to dissimilar anatomical landmarks. They are used in anatomy, surface anatomy, surgery, and radiology.^[44]

Structures may be described as being at the level of a specific spinal vertebra, depending on the section of the vertebral column the construction is at.^[44] The position is frequently abbreviated. For example, structures at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra may be abbreviated as "C4", at the level of the quaternary thoracic vertebra "T4", and at the level of the third lumbar vertebra "L3". Considering the sacrum and coccyx are fused, they are non oftentimes used to provide the location.

References may also take origin from superficial anatomy, made to landmarks that are on the pare or visible underneath.^[44] For example, structures may be described relative to the anterior superior iliac spine, the medial malleolus or the medial epicondyle.

Anatomical lines are used to depict anatomical location. For example, the mid-clavicular line is used as function of the cardiac examination in medicine to experience the apex beat of the eye.

Mouth and teeth [edit]

Special terms are used to describe the mouth and teeth.^[2] Fields such as osteology, palaeontology and dentistry use special terms of location to describe the mouth and teeth. This is because although teeth may be aligned with their main axes within the jaw, some unlike relationships require special terminology as well; for instance, teeth also can be rotated, and in such contexts terms similar "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous.^{[45] [46]} For instance, the terms "distal" and "proximal" are also redefined to mean the distance away or close to the dental arch, and "medial" and "lateral" are used to refer to the closeness to the midline of the dental curvation.^[47] Terms used to describe structures include "buccal" (from Latin bucca 'cheek') and "palatal" (from Latin) referring to structures close to the cheek and hard palate respectively.^[47]

Hands and feet [edit]

Anatomical terms used to draw a human mitt

Several anatomical terms are particular to the hands and feet.^[2]

Boosted terms may exist used to avoid confusion when describing the surfaces of the manus and what is the "inductive" or "posterior" surface – . The term "anterior", while anatomically right, tin can exist confusing when describing the palm of the manus; Similarly is "posterior", used to describe the back of the mitt and arm. This confusion can arise because the forearm tin can pronate and supinate and flip the location of the mitt. For improved clarity, the directional term palmar (from Latin palma 'palm of the mitt') is commonly used to describe the front of the hand, and dorsal is the back of the hand. For example, the top of a dog'southward paw is its dorsal surface; the underside, either the palmar (on the forelimb) or the plantar (on the hindlimb) surface. The palmar fascia is palmar to the tendons of muscles which flex the fingers, and the dorsal venous arch is so named because it is on the dorsal side of the foot.

In humans, volar tin can also be used synonymously with palmar to refer to the underside of the palm, just plantar is used exclusively to describe the sole. These terms draw location equally palmar and plantar; For example, volar pads are those on the underside of hands or fingers; the plantar surface describes the sole of the heel, pes or toes.

Similarly, in the forearm, for clarity, the sides are named after the bones. Structures closer to the radius are radial, structures closer to the ulna are ulnar, and structures relating to both basic are referred to every bit radioulnar. Similarly, in the lower leg, structures near the tibia (shinbone) are tibial and structures nearly the fibula are fibular (or peroneal).

Rotational direction [edit]

Anteversion and retroversion are complementary terms describing an anatomical structure that is rotated forwards (towards the front of the body) or backwards (towards the back of the body), relative to another position. They are particularly used to draw the curvature of the uterus.^{[48] [49]}

• Anteversion (from Latin anteversus) describes an anatomical construction being tilted further forward than normal, whether pathologically or incidentally.^[48] For example, a adult female'due south uterus typically is anteverted, tilted slightly forward. A misaligned pelvis may be anteverted, that is to say tilted forward to some relevant degree.
• Retroversion (from Latin retroversus) describes an anatomical structure tilted back abroad from something.^[49] An instance is a retroverted uterus.^[49]

Other directional terms [edit]

Several other terms are also used to describe location. These terms are not used to grade the fixed axes. Terms include:

• Axial (from Latin axis 'beam'): effectually the central axis of the organism or the extremity. Two related terms, "abaxial" and "adaxial", refer to locations away from and toward the central axis of an organism, respectively
• Luminal (from Latin lumen 'light, opening'): on the—hollow—inside of an organ's lumen (trunk cavity or tubular structure);^{[50] [51]} adluminal is towards, abluminal is away from the lumen.^[52] Opposite to outermost (the adventitia, serosa, or the cavity's wall).^[53]
• Parietal (from Latin paries 'wall'): pertaining to the wall of a trunk cavity.^[54] For example, the parietal peritoneum is the lining on the inside of the abdominal cavity. Parietal can likewise refer specifically to the parietal bone of the skull or associated structures.
• Last (from Latin terminus 'boundary or terminate') at the extremity of a usually projecting structure.^[55] For case, "...an antenna with a concluding sensory hair".
• Visceral and viscus (from Latin viscera 'internal organs'): associated with organs within the torso'south cavities.^[56] For case, the breadbasket is covered with a lining called the visceral peritoneum as opposed to the parietal peritoneum. Viscus can also exist used to mean "organ".^[56] For example, the stomach is a viscus within the abdominal cavity, and visceral hurting refers to pain originating from internal organs.
• Aboral (opposite to oral) is used to denote a location forth the gastrointestinal canal that is relatively closer to the anus.^[57]

Specific animals and other organisms [edit]

Different terms are used because of different body plans in animals, whether animals stand on one or two legs, and whether an animal is symmetrical or not, equally discussed higher up. For case, as humans are approximately bilaterally symmetrical organisms, anatomical descriptions usually employ the same terms equally those for other vertebrates.^[58] Nonetheless, humans stand upright on two legs, meaning their anterior/posterior and ventral/dorsal directions are the same, and the inferior/superior directions are necessary.^[59] Humans do non have a beak, so a term such as "rostral" used to refer to the pecker in some animals is instead used to refer to part of the brain;^[60] humans do also not have a tail then a term such as "caudal" that refers to the tail stop may also exist used in humans and animals without tails to refer to the hind office of the body.^[61]

In invertebrates, the large diversity of torso shapes presents a difficult problem when attempting to utilise standard directional terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by illustration from vertebrate beefcake, and appropriate novel terms are applied as needed. Some such borrowed terms are widely applicable in most invertebrates; for example proximal, meaning "near" refers to the function of an appendage nearest to where it joins the body, and distal, meaning "standing abroad from" is used for the part furthest from the betoken of attachment. In all cases, the usage of terms is dependent on the torso plan of the organism.

• 

  Anatomical terms of location in a domestic dog

• 

  Anatomical terms of location in a kangaroo

• 

  Anatomical terms of location in a fish.

• 

  Anatomical terms of location in a horse.

Asymmetrical and spherical organisms [edit]

Asymmetrical and spherical trunk shapes. (a) An organism with an asymmetrical, amoeboid, body plan (Amoeba proteus – an amoeba). (b) An organism with a spherical trunk programme (Actinophrys sol – a heliozoan).

In organisms with a child-bearing shape, such as amoeboid organisms, nigh directional terms are meaningless, since the shape of the organism is not constant and no distinct axes are stock-still. Similarly, in spherically symmetrical organisms, in that location is zero to distinguish one line through the heart of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could exist divers, but any such choice of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a called triad from whatever others. In such organisms, only terms such as superficial and deep, or sometimes proximal and distal, are usefully descriptive.

Four individuals of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom with a fixed elongated shape.

Elongated organisms [edit]

In organisms that maintain a abiding shape and have 1 dimension longer than the other, at least two directional terms can be used. The long or longitudinal centrality is defined past points at the contrary ends of the organism. Similarly, a perpendicular transverse axis can be defined by points on contrary sides of the organism. There is typically no basis for the definition of a 3rd axis. Ordinarily such organisms are planktonic (free-swimming) protists, and are nearly always viewed on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases a third centrality can exist divers, particularly where a non-terminal cytostome or other unique construction is present.^[43]

Some elongated protists have distinctive ends of the trunk. In such organisms, the end with a mouth (or equivalent structure, such as the cytostome in Paramecium or Stentor), or the cease that usually points in the direction of the organism'southward locomotion (such as the cease with the flagellum in Euglena), is normally designated as the anterior end. The opposite finish and then becomes the posterior stop.^[43] Properly, this terminology would apply only to an organism that is always planktonic (not unremarkably attached to a surface), although the term can too exist applied to one that is sessile (normally fastened to a surface).^[62]

Organisms that are attached to a substrate, such as sponges, animal-like protists also have distinctive ends. The part of the organism fastened to the substrate is usually referred to as the basal end (from Latin basis 'support/foundation'), whereas the cease furthest from the zipper is referred to as the apical end (from Latin apex 'pinnacle/tip').

Radially symmetrical organisms [edit]

Radially symmetrical organisms include those in the grouping Radiata – primarily jellyfish, sea anemones and corals and the comb jellies.^{[41] [43]} Adult echinoderms, such equally starfish, sea urchins, body of water cucumbers and others are also included, since they are pentaradial, meaning they have v discrete rotational symmetry. Echinoderm larvae are non included, since they are bilaterally symmetrical.^{[41] [43]} Radially symmetrical organisms always have one distinctive centrality.

Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no opening from the gut (coelenteron).^[43] For this reason, the end of the organism with the mouth is referred to as the oral end (from Latin ōrālis 'of the mouth'),^[63] and the opposite surface is the aboral stop (from Latin ab- 'abroad from').^[64]

Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians take no other distinctive axes. "Lateral", "dorsal", and "ventral" accept no pregnant in such organisms, and all tin can be replaced by the generic term peripheral (from Ancient Greek περιφέρεια 'circumference'). Medial can be used, simply in the example of radiates indicates the central point, rather than a central centrality as in vertebrates. Thus, at that place are multiple possible radial axes and medio-peripheral (half-) axes. Notwithstanding, some biradially symmetrical rummage jellies do have singled-out "tentacular" and "pharyngeal" axes^[65] and are thus anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical animals.

• 

  Aurelia aurita, another species of jellyfish, showing multiple radial and medio-peripheral axes

• 

  The sea star Porania pulvillus, aboral and oral surfaces

Spiders [edit]

Special terms are used for spiders. 2 specialized terms are useful in describing views of arachnid legs and pedipalps. Prolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the anterior end of an arachnid's trunk. Retrolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the posterior terminate of an arachnid's body.^[66] Most spiders take eight optics in 4 pairs. All the eyes are on the carapace of the prosoma, and their sizes, shapes and locations are feature of various spider families and other taxa.^[67] Ordinarily, the eyes are arranged in ii roughly parallel, horizontal and symmetrical rows of optics.^[67] Eyes are labelled according to their position every bit anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median eyes (AME) and (PME).^[67]

• 

  Aspects of spider anatomy; This attribute shows the mainly prolateral surface of the anterior femora, plus the typical horizontal middle pattern of the Sparassidae

• 

  Typical arrangement of eyes in the Lycosidae, with PME existence the largest

See also [edit]

• Chirality
• Geometric terms of location
• Handedness
• Laterality
• Proper right and proper left
• Reflection symmetry
• Sinistral and dextral

References [edit]

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• Wake, Marvale H., ed. (1992). Hyman'south comparative vertebrate anatomy (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Printing. ISBN9780226870113.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location

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